LET US LEARN LESSON FROM HISTORY – WORLD WAR I
World War I, also known as the Great War, was fought between Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire)- also known as the Quadruple Alliance and Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Romania, Japan and the United States). It began in 1914 after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria.
His murder catapulted into a war across Europe that lasted until 1918. Thanks to new military technologies and the horrors of trench warfare, World War I saw unprecedented levels of carnage and destruction. By the time the war was over and the Allied Powers claimed victory, more than 16 million people—soldiers and civilians alike—were dead.
At the out side, it looks inconceivable that a single assassination may result in such a horrific end. To understand the what and why of events we need to go back to get the idea of background.
Main Actors
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I, a leader of the Turkish tribes in Anatolia around 1299. The term “Ottoman” is derived from Osman’s name, which was “Uthman” in Arabic. It was was one of the mightiest and longest-lasting dynasties in world history. This Islamic-run superpower ruled large areas of the Middle East, Eastern Europe and North Africa for more than 600 years. The Ottoman Empire reached its peak between 1520 and 1566, during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. This period was marked by great power, stability and wealth.
At its height, the Ottoman Empire included – Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Egypt, Hungary (part of Austria-Hungary), Macedonia, Romania, Jordan, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, Some of Arabia and a considerable amount of the North African coastal strip. However In 1878, Romania, Serbia and Bulgaria became Independent.
At the start of World War I, the Ottoman Empire was already in decline. The Ottoman army entered the war in 1914 on the side of the Central Powers (including Germany and Austria-Hungary) and were defeated in October 1918. Ultimately, most of the Ottoman territories were divided between Britain, France, Greece and Russia.
Austria-Hungarian Empire
Also referred as the Dual Monarchy, it was a constitutional monarchy and great power in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. It was a real union between two monarchies, Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary formed with the Austria- Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and was dissolved following its defeat in the World War I.
The states were co-equal in power and conducted common foreign, defense and financial policies, but all other governmental faculties were divided between respective states. Austria-Hungary was a multinational state and one of Europe's major powers at the time. Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe after the Russian Empire.
Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes referred to simply as Bosnia, is a country in Southeastern Europe on the Balkan Peninsula. It has permanent settlement since the Neolithic Age. The Ottoman Empire followed in 1463 and lasted over 400 years. A series of uprisings began 1831, which culminated in the Herzegovinian rebellion, a widespread peasant uprising, in 1875. The conflict eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary through the Treaty of Berlin in 1878.
After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austria-Hungarian military and civil rule until it was fully annexed (although within the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire) in October 1908, provoking the crisis known as Bosnian Crisis.
This unilateral action sparked protestations from all the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors, Serbia and Montenegro and damaged relations between Austria-Hungary and the neighboring states of Italy, Serbia, and Russia. It also cooled down Austrian–Serbian relations. The crisis laid the grounds for World War I.
The idea of a Unified South Slavic State (typically expected to be spearheaded by independent Serbia) had already become a popular political ideology in the region at this time especially among Serbs. It got converted to a movement where nationalists were struggling to end Austria-Hungarian rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The political tensions caused by all this culminated on 28 June 1914 in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife and triggered World War I.
Black Hand Society
Unification or Death popularly known as the Black Hand was a secret military society formed in 1901 by officers in the Army of the Kingdom of Serbia.
The society was formed with the aim of uniting all of the territories with a South Slavic majority not then ruled by either Serbia or Montenegro. The members of the Black Hand society had planned meticulously and carried out assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
Web of Alliances
-The countries of Central Powers were bound by Triple Entente (Entente is French word meaning friendship, understanding or agreement) since 1879. The alliance partners were Germany and Austria-Hungary and Italy who chose to remain neutral. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria did not join until after World War I had begun, even though the Ottoman Empire had close relations with both Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- There was also Triple Entente between the Russian Empire, the France and the Great Britain. It built upon the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, the Entente Cordiale of 1904 between Paris and London, and the Anglo-Russian Entente of 1907. It formed a powerful counterweight to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
As the war progressed, each coalition added new members. Japan joined the Entente in 1914.
The Trigger
Tensions had been brewing throughout Europe—especially in the troubled Balkan region of southeast Europe—for years before World War I actually broke out.
The spark that ignited World War I was struck in Sarajevo, Bosnia. Archduke Franz Ferdinand was heir to the throne of Austria- Hungary. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 by Austria- Hungary had angered Serbian nationalists, who believed the territories should be part of Serbia. In June 1914, the Archduke traveled to Sarajevo to inspect the imperial armed forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina, annexed by Austria-Hungary.
Members of Black Hand society decided to assassinate Archduke to project their almost forgotten cause to the world. On 28 June 1914, The royal couple arrived in Sarajevo by train shortly before 10.00 A.M and rode in the third car of a six-car motorcade towards Town Hall. Their car's top was rolled back in order to allow the crowds a good view of its occupants.
A young Bosnia revolutionary named Gavrilo Princip (member of Black Hand) assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife, Duchess Sophie using a revolver.
Later Gavrilo Princip (who was 19 years old) was sentenced to twenty years in prison, the maximum for his age, and was imprisoned at the Terezin fortress. He died on 28 April 1918 a very painful death from tuberculosis exacerbated by poor prison conditions which had already caused the loss of his right arm.
Alliances Led the War
Immediately after assassination diplomatic maneuvering started among Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France, and Britain called the July Crisis.
Austria-Hungary had a military alliance with Germany. An alliance is an agreement to act together. On July 5, German Emperor Kaiser Wilhelm II secretly pledged his support, giving Austria-Hungary a so-called carte blanche, or “blank check” assurance of Germany’s backing in the case of war.
Austria-Hungary delivered the July Ultimatum to Serbia, a series of ten demands intentionally made unacceptable in order to provoke a war with Serbia. When Serbia agreed to only eight of the ten demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on 28 July 1914.
Austria-Hungary, like many countries around the world, blamed the Serbian government for Archduke Francis Ferdinand’s death in terrorist attack and wanted to use the incident as justification for settling the question of Serbian nationalism once and for all.
The leaders of Austria-Hungary also hoped to rally the citizens of their fading empire by going to war against the much smaller Serbia, believing a victory would remind their ethnic minorities of the empire’s strength, and let other ethnic groups know that terrorism would be punished.
Russia had a large Serbian minority and many ties with Serbia and the other nations in the Balkan mountains. Russia was displeased with Austria-Hungary’s seizure of Sarajevo and did not want Austria-Hungary expanding into the Balkans.
Majority of Russian leaders wanted to avoid war but it feared that a failure to defend Serbia would lead to the loss of Russian credibility and a major political defeat. Tsar Nicholas II mobilized Russian forces on 30 July 1914 to threaten Austria-Hungary if it invaded Serbia.
When Russia enacted a general mobilization , Germany, in turn, mobilized for war and on 1 August, sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that an effective state of war existed between the two countries. Later that day, France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of general mobilization. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France. Germany, was now facing a two-front war.
- German armed forces needed to move through Belgium to enter. Belgium was a neutral country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded Belgium to launch an offensive towards Paris.
- When German soldiers marched across their border to reach France, the Belgians called on an alliance with Great Britain to help resist the Germans. This caused Great Britain to declare war against the German Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both nations signed in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality and defense of the kingdom if a nation reneged.
Subsequently, several states declared war on Germany in late August 1914, with Italy declaring war on Austria-Hungary in 1915 and Germany on 27 August 1916, the United States declaring war on Germany on 6 April 1917 and Greece declaring war on Germany in July 1917.
Like a snowball rolling downhill, European alliances entangled most of the continent into what became known as “the Great War.” Historians continue to debate the importance of the alliance system as one of the causes of the World War I.
Convinced that Austria-Hungary was readying for war, the Serbian government ordered the Serbian army to mobilize and appealed to Russia for assistance. On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, and the tenuous peace between Europe’s great powers quickly collapsed.
Within a week, Russia, Belgium, France, Great Britain and Serbia had lined up against Austria-Hungary and Germany, and World War I had begun. Germany began fighting World War I on two fronts, invading France through neutral Belgium in the west and confronting Russia in the east.
The Western Front
Battle of Liege – Victory for Central Powers
On August 4, 1914, German troops crossed the border into Belgium. In the first battle of World War I, the Germans assaulted the heavily fortified city of Liege (Belgium) and captured it by August 15. The Germans left death and destruction in their wake as they advanced through Belgium toward France, shooting civilians and executing a Belgian priest they had accused of inciting civilian resistance.
First Battle of the Marne – Victory for Allied Forces
The First Battle of the Marne was a battle of the First World War fought from 6 to 12 September 1914. It resulted in an Allied victory against the German armies in the west. The Marne is a river in France, an eastern tributary of the Seine river in the area east and southeast of Paris.
French and British forces confronted the invading Germany army, which had by then penetrated deep into northeastern France, within 30 miles of Paris. The Allied troops checked the German advance and mounted a successful counterattack, driving the Germans back to north of the Aisne River.
At the start of war, Germany had thought that it will be easy to defeat France, but this defeat ended their plan for quick victory in France. Both sides dug into trenches, and the Western Front was the setting for a hellish war of attrition that would last more than three years.
Particularly long and costly battles in this campaign were fought at Battle of Verdun (February-December 1916) and the Battle of Somme (July-November 1916). German and French troops suffered close to a million casualties in the Battle of Verdun alone.
Battle of Verdun- Victory for Allied Forces after long and deadly battle
Battle of Verdun, (21 February –18 December, 1916), World War I engagement in which the French repulsed a major German offensive. It was one of the longest, bloodiest, and most-ferocious battles of the war; French casualties amounted to about 400,000, German ones to about 350,000.
Battle of the Somme-Victory for Allied Forces after long and deadly battle.
The Battle of the Somme ( 1 July -18 November 1916) was fought by British and French army against the German army on both sides of the upper reaches of the River Somme in France. The battle was intended to hasten a victory for the Allies.
More than three million men fought in the battle and one million men were wounded or killed, making it one of the deadliest battles in human history. At the end of the battle, British and French forces had penetrated 10 km into German-occupied territory in France along the majority of the front.
Battle of Tannenberg– Rout of Russian Army
On the Eastern Front of World War I, the Battle of Tannenberg, was fought between Russia and Germany between 26 and 30 August 1914. The battle resulted in the almost complete destruction of the Russian Second Army and the suicide of its commanding general, Alexander Samsonov. A series of follow-up battles destroyed most of the First Army as well and kept the Russians off balance until the spring of 1915.
Ottoman Empire enters World War I
The Ottoman Empire came into World War I as one of the Central Powers. The Ottoman Empire entered the war by carrying out a surprise attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914, with Russia responding by declaring war on 1 November 1914 and Russia's allies, Britain and France, then declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 5 November 1914.
The reasons for the Ottoman action were not immediately clear. The Ottoman government had declared neutrality in the war, and negotiations with both sides were underway. Ottoman forces fought the Allied forces in the Balkans and the Middle Eastern Theatre of the World War I.
USA enters World War I
At the outbreak of war in 1914, the United States remained on the sidelines, adopting the policy of neutrality. However, when in 1915, German Submarines U-boats sunk several commercial and passenger vessels, including some US ships, United States declared war against Germany.
Gallipoli Campaign – Defeat of Allied Forces
The Gallipoli campaign was a military campaign in the First World War that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula (Gelibolu in modern Turkey), from 17 February 1915 to 9 January 1916. As part of strategy the Allied powers Britain, France and Russia , sought to weaken the Ottoman Empire by taking control of the Turkish straits (a narrow passage of water connecting two seas or two other large areas of water).
The aim was to cut off the Ottoman capital at Constantinople from the Asian part of the empire and control the Suez canal for year-round Allied supply route through the Black Sea to warm water ports in Russia. The Allied fleet's attempt to force the Dardanelles in February 1915 failed and was followed by an amphibious landing on the Gallipoli peninsula in April 1915.
In January 1916, after eight months' fighting, with approximately 250,000 casualties on each side, the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force withdrawn. The campaign was considered a great Ottoman victory.
Russia exits WW1
From 1914 to 1916, Russia’s army mounted several offensives on World War I’s Eastern Front, but was unable to break through German lines. Defeat on the battlefield, combined with economic instability and the scarcity of food and other essentials, led to mounting discontent among the bulk of Russia’s population, especially the poverty-stricken workers and peasants.
This increased hostility was directed toward the imperial regime of Tsar Nicholas II and his unpopular German-born wife, Alexandra. Russia’s simmering instability exploded in the Russian Revolution of 1917, spearheaded by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks, which ended Tsarist rule and brought a halt to Russian participation in World War I.
Russia reached an armistice with the Central Powers in early December 1917, freeing German troops to face the remaining Allies on the Western Front. New communist government in Moscow signed the Treaty of Brest- Litovsk in March 1918.
In that treaty, Russia renounced all claims to Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Ukraine and the territory of Congress Poland, and it was left to Germany and Austria-Hungary "to determine the future status of these territories in agreement with their population." However, the treaty was rendered obsolete when Germany was defeated later in 1918.
Italy enters WW I with Allied Forces
Italy had declared itself neutral in the war even though it was member of the Triple Alliance alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary since 1882. As the war progressed, Italy was wooed by both sides. Ultimately, Italy accepted the Allies’ offer in which Italy would receive a slice of Austria and a slice of the Ottoman Empire after the defeat of Austria-Hungary. This was formalized by the Treaty of London.
On May 23, 1915, Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary, entering World War I on the side of the Allies. The Italian declaration opened up a new front in World War I, stretching 600 kilometers—most of them mountainous—along Italy’s border with Austria-Hungary. Italy was not prepared for large-scale warfare, and didn’t posses enough trained manpower or equipment.
Battle of the Isonzo – First Bitter Defeat and then Victory
Upon declaring war, the Italian army immediately advanced into the South Tyrol region of Austria and to the Isonzo River, where Austria-Hungarian troops met them with a stiff defense. The snowy and treacherous terrain made the region poorly suited to offensive operations, and after several quick Italian successes, combat settled into a stalemate.
By late 1917, the Austrians and Italians had fought no fewer than 11 battles along the Isonzo River, with negligible progress and heavy losses on both sides. In late October 1917, German intervention to help Austria-Hungary resulted in a spectacular victory over the Italians in the Battle of Caporetto (also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo).
Italian forces suffered some 300,000 casualties (90 percent of which were prisoners) and were forced to retreat. The use of poison gas by the Germans also played a key role in the collapse of the Italian Second Army.
The Italian Army retreated 150 kilometers to the Piave river. The government of Paolo Boselli collapsed and a coalition government under Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando was formed. After Caporetto, Italy’s allies jumped in to offer increased assistance, as British and French—and later American—troops soon arrived in the region, and the Allies began to take back the initiative.
Bulgaria Enters WW 1 with Central powers and exits
Initially Bulgaria declared neutrality in WW 1. But it was wooed by both coalitions due to its strategic location and strong military establishment. However it made claims against four Balkan countries. When Central Powers agreed to these demands, Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers, invading Serbia in September 1915.
Bulgaria made vital contributions to Central Powers as its entry heralded the defeat of Serbia. It also provided a land and rail link from Germany to Istanbul, that is, on Via Militaris (an ancient Roman road).
Central Powers moved rapidly in Balkan campaign in 1915 and 1916, but the conflict degraded into attritional trench warfare This period of the war completely damaged the economy, creating supply problems and reducing the health and morale of Bulgarian troops. Despite achieving national territorial aspirations, Bulgaria was unable to exit what otherwise would have been a successful war, weakening its will to continue to fight.
On September 15, a combined force of Serbian, French and Greek troops attacked the Bulgarian-held trenches in present day North Macedonia. It had devastating effects and led to mass desertions in Bulgarian army. Forced to seek peace, Bulgaria requested an armistice with the Allies on 24 September 1918.
Bulgaria formally exited World War I on 29 September 1918, having lost some 90,000 soldiers over the course of the conflict. Tsar Ferdinand I assumed responsibility, abdicating in favor of his son Boris III on 3 October.
Greece Enters WW 1 with Allied Forces
The Greece entry to WW I was unique. King Constantine I was in favour of joining Central Forces whereas the Govt. led by Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos was in favour of Allied Forces.
Constantine, educated in Germany and married to a sister of Kaiser Wilhelm II, was naturally sympathetic to the Germans when World War I broke out. Despite pressure from his own pro-Allied government, including Prime Minister Eleutherios Venizelos, Constantine maintained Greece’s neutrality for the first three years of the war.
The disagreement between King Constantine, who favoured neutrality, and the pro-Allied Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos led to the National Schism the division of the state between two rival governments.
By the end of 1915, when Allied operations were failing Constantine believed that Germany had the upper hand. He dismissed Venizelos in October 1915, substituting him with a series of premiers who basically served as royal puppets. Meanwhile, civil war threatened in Greece, as Constantine desperately sought promises of naval, military and financial assistance from Germany, which he did not receive.
After losing their patience with Constantine, the Allies finally sent an ultimatum demanding his abdication on 11 June 1917. The same day, British forces blockaded Greece and the French landed their troops at Piraeus, on the Isthmus of Corinth, in blatant disregard of Greek neutrality. The following day, Constantine abdicated in favor of his second son, Alexander.
On June 26, Alexander reinstated Venizelos, who returned from exile in Crete, where he had established a provisional Greek government with Allied support. Ultimately on July 2, 1917, Greece entered the war in support of Allied Forces. Over the next 18 months, some 5,000 Greek soldiers would die on the battlefields of World War I.
Romania oscillates – Neutrality - Allied Forces – Central Powers – Allied Forces in WW 1
At the start of World War I, King Carol I of Romania favored Germany, while the nation's political elite favored the Entente. As such, the crown council took the decision to remain neutral. But after King Carol's death in 1914, his successor King Ferdinand I, favored the Allied Forces. For Romania, the highest priority was taking Transylvania from Hungary, with around 2,800,000 Romanians out of around 5,000,000 people.
The Allies wanted Romania to join their side in order to cut rail communications between Germany and Turkey, and to cut off Germany's oil supplies. To woo Romania, Britain made loans, France sent a military training mission, and Russia promised modern munitions. The Allies also promised at least 200,000 soldiers to defend Romania against Bulgaria to the south, and help it invade Austria.
Ultimately, in August 1916, Romania received an ultimatum to decide whether to join the Allied Forces "now or never". Under the pressure of the ultimatum, the Romanian government agreed to enter the war on the side of the Allies, although the situation on the battle fronts was not favorable.
The Romanian campaign was part of the Eastern Front of World War I. Fighting took place from August 1916 to December 1917 across most of present-day Romania, including Transylvania, which was part of the Austria-Hungarian Empire at the time, as well as in Southern Dobruja, which is currently part of Bulgaria.
Despite initial successes in Transylvania, the Romanian forces (even though aided by Russia) suffered massive setbacks, and by the end of 1916, only Western Moldavia remained under the control of the Romanian and Russian armies.
With Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania was almost completely surrounded by the Central Powers. It was also forced to sign the Treaty of Bucharest in May 1918 to drop out of the war and to provide support to Central Powers. The parliament signed the treaty, however King Ferdinand refused to sign it, hoping for an Allied victory on the western front.
On 10 November 1918, just one day before the German armistice and after all the other Central Powers had already capitulated and Allied had successfully advanced on the Macedonian front, Romania re-entered the war with Allies.
Japan and China enter WW I with Allies
From its inception, the Great War was by no means confined to the European continent; in the Far East, two rival nations, Japan and China, sought to find their own role in the great conflict. Japan already had a military alliance with Britain since 1902 but that did not obligate it to enter the war.
On 6 August 1914, Britain requested Japan for limited naval assistance in hunting down armed German merchant ships. Japan gladly agreed, seizing the opportunity seeing the war as a great opportunity to to expand its sphere of influence in China and the Pacific
On 15 August 1914, the Japan served an ultimatum to Germany, demanding the removal of all German ships from Japanese and Chinese waters and the surrender of control of Tsingtao—the location of Germany’s largest overseas naval bases, located on China’s Shantung Peninsula—to Japan by noon on 23 August.
When Germany did not respond, Japan declared war on 23 August. Japanese navy aided by Britain approached the naval base across China, breaching that country’s neutrality and attacked Tsingtao . On 7 November , the German garrison at Tsingtao surrendered , and Japanese troops were home by the end of the year. There was minimal fighting. Japan basically joined the Allies in order to make territorial gains. It acquired Germany's scattered small holdings in the Pacific and on the China coast.
On the other hand, China was neutral at the start of the war, as the country was financially chaotic, unstable politically, and militarily weak.
In January 1915, Japan issued an ultimatum called the Twenty One Demands to the Chinese government. They included the extension of direct Japanese control over most of Shantung, southern Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia and the seizure of more territory, including islands in the South Pacific controlled by Germany. After China rejected Japan's initial proposal, a reduced set of Thirteen Demands was transmitted in May, with a two-day deadline for response.
Chinese Prime Minister Yuan Shikai who was competing with other local warlords to become the ruler of all China, was not in a position to risk war with Japan, and accepted appeasement. The final form of the treaty was signed by both parties on 25 May 1915. Japan extended control over the Shantung Peninsula and indirectly over the rest of China.
On 17 February 1917, the French Ship SS Athos was sunk by the German U-boat SM U-65. The ship carried 900 Chinese workers, 543 of which were killed, and China subsequently severed diplomatic ties with Germany in March 1917. The Chinese officially declared war on the Central Powers on 14 August 1917. German and Austria-Hungarian concessions territories in Tientsin and Hankow were swiftly occupied by China.
By entering the war, China, hoped to gain international prestige from China's new allies. The major aim was to earn China a place at the post-war bargaining table, to regain control over the Shantung Peninsula, and to shrink Japan's sphere of Influence.
While China never sent troops into battle, its involvement in World War I was influential—and had impacts that stretched far beyond the war, going on to shape the country's future indelibly.
Starting in late 1916, China began shipping out thousands of men to Britain, France and Russia. Those laborers would repair tanks, assemble shells, transport supplies and munitions, and help to literally reshape the war’s battle sites.
It was widely reported that lot of trenches weren’t dug by the [Allied] soldiers but by Chinese laborers. By the end of the war, Chinese workers would rank as the largest and longest serving non-European contingent in World War I. By sending workers—mostly illiterate peasants, China wanted to prove that it deserved a seat at the table whenever the war ended and terms were agreed upon.
The volatile nation i.e. China dreamed of regaining complete control of the Shantung province. Known as Cradle of Chinese Civilization, the Shantung region has a rich history as the birthplace of Confucius.
But even after a year of supplying labor, their contribution remained largely unrecognized diplomatically.
British Blockade of Germany and Naval Battle of Jutland – Victory for Allies
The Blockade of Germany, or the Blockade of Europe, occurred from 1914 to 1919. It was a prolonged naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers, especially Great Britain to restrict the maritime supply of goods to the Central Powers. It is considered one of the key elements in the eventual Allied victory in the war. It is estimated that around 424,000. German civilians died from starvation and disease caused by the blockade through December 1918.
Both the German Empire and the United Kingdom relied heavily on imports (primarily from the Americas) to feed their population and supply their war industry. All the material had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The British—with their overwhelming sea power—established a naval blockade of Germany immediately on the outbreak of war in August 1914. Even movement of food items was restricted.
The Battle of Jutland was a naval battle fought between Britain's Royal Navy Grand Fleet and the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet, (31 May -1 June 1916) off the North Sea coast of Denmark's Jutland Peninsula. Germany wanted to break the British blockade and to open access of German naval vessels to the Atlantic.
As the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet, it was planned to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the British Grand Fleet. On the other hand, Britain's strategy was to engage and destroy the German High Seas Fleet to keep German naval forces away from Britain and her shipping lane.
It was the largest naval battle and the only full-scale clash of battleships in World War I. In the battle, fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with a total of 9,823 casualties but the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long-term goal.
The Battle of Jutland (May 1916) established British naval superiority and Germany made no further attempts to break an Allied naval blockade for the remainder of the war.
World War I – Battle in the Air
World War I was the first major conflict to harness the power of planes. At the dawn of World War I, aviation was a relatively new field and aircrafts were initially used primarily for reconnaissance missions.
The British aircraft Bristol Type 22 was capable for both reconnaissance work and as a fighter plane. Germany had also developed very popular plane the single-seat Fokker Eindecker. Fokker created over 40 kinds of airplanes for the Germans.
The Allies introduced the first two-engine bomber Handley-Page HP O/400, in 1915. As aerial technology progressed, long-range heavy bombers like Germany’s Zeppelin and Gotha G.V. (first introduced in 1917) were used to strike cities like London. By war’s end, the Allies were producing five times more aircraft than the Germans.
Second Battle of the Marne- Victory for Allied Forces
The Second Battle of the Marne (15 July – 6 August 1918) was the last major German offensive on the Western Front.
Germany was able to build up its strength on the Western Front after exit of Russia from WW1. On 15 July 1918, German troops launched attack on French forces which were supported by American as well as British troops. The Allies successfully pushed back the German offensive and launched their own counteroffensive just three days later.
It was believed that when the Allied Forces had planned major counteroffensive on 18 July, they had the complete picture of the German offensive in terms of intentions and capabilities to the minutest detail.
There is a legend, possibly true, that engineer Cpt. Hunter Grant, along with the help of engagement coordinator and engineer Cpt. Page, devised a deceptive ruse.
A briefcase with false plans for an American counterattack was handcuffed to a man who had died of pneumonia and placed in a vehicle which appeared to have run off the road at a German-controlled bridge. The Germans got deceived and changed their attack plan.
Consequently, the Allied Forces conducted a different attack on exposed parts of the enemy lines, leaving the Germans with no choice but to retreat.
This engagement marked the beginning of a German withdrawal that was never effectively reversed. It turned the tide of war decisively towards the Allies, who were able to regain much of France and Belgium in the months that followed. It also marked the start of the relentless Allied Advance which culminated in the Armistice with Germany about 100 days later.
Spanish Flu and its Effect
The Spanish flu, also known as the 1918 influenza pandemic, was caused by the H1N1influenza A virus, Lasting from February 1918 to April 1920, it infected 500 million people – about a third of the world's population at the time – in four successive waves.
The death toll is typically estimated to have been somewhere between 20 million and 50 million, although estimates range from a conservative 17 million to a possible high of 100 million, making it one of the deadliest pandemics in human history.
The first observations of illness and mortality were documented in the Kansas USA in March 1918 and then in April in France, Germany and the United Kingdom. It very soon spread all over the world.
Both Allied countries and Central Powers clamped censorship on reporting the news about the virus to maintain the morale of the forces. This further aided in the deadly spread of the virus, since soldiers didn’t take any precaution(like wearing mask) to arrest its spread. Coupled with this ignorance was the conditions in trenches and camps where large group of soldiers lived in close proximity.
The infectious disease most likely reached Spain in May 1918 from France, perhaps as the result of the heavy railroad traffic of Spanish and Portuguese migrant workers to and from France. Since Spain was a neutral country it didn’t enforce any censorship and news of spread of virus made headlines on 22 May 1918. A week later (28 May), King Alfonso XIII, the Prime Minister and even some cabinet ministers contracted the disease.
Newspapers in both Allied countries and Central Power had no restrictions in reporting the virus spread in Spain and these stories created a false impression of Spain being origin of virus and thus the name "Spanish" flu. Normally, Most influenza outbreaks kill the very young and the very old but strangely Spanish flu pandemic resulted in a higher-than-expected mortality rate for young adults.
According to Academic studies and Research the virus helped tip the balance of power in the latter days of the war towards the Allied cause. The data generated from the study shows that the viral waves hit the Central Powers before the Allied powers, and that both morbidity and mortality in Germany and Austria were considerably higher than in Britain and France.
A 2006 Lancet study corroborates higher excess mortality rates in Germany (0.76%) and Austria (1.61%) compared to Britain (0.34%) and France (0.75%).
World War I Casualties
World War I took the lives of more than 9 million soldiers; 21 million more were wounded. Civilian casualties numbered close to 10 million. The two nations most affected were Germany and France, each of which sent some 80 percent of their male populations between the ages of 15 and 49 into battle.
Indian Participation in World War I
The story of World War I will remain incomplete without explicit mention of bravery and sacrifices of Indian soldiers who fought along with British as well as thousands of civilians like doctors, nurses and social workers who contributed to the success of Britain in the war.
The number of Indian soldiers who fought between 1914 and 1918 were four times as many as those from Australian, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa and the Caribbean combined. Over one million Indian troops served overseas, of whom 62,000 died and another 67,000 were wounded. In total at least 74,187 Indian soldiers died during the war.
India along with these countries were Dominion of Britain and therefore entered the war as part of Great Britain. In World War I the Indian Army fought against the German Empire on the Western Front. Indian divisions were also sent to Egypt, Gallipoli, German East Africa and nearly 700,000 served in Mesopotamia against the Ottoman Empire.
Where sacrifices of soldiers from many other countries have been well chronicled in novels, TV Serials and movies, the contributions of Indians are almost forgotten. So we briefly mention about these unsung Indian Heros and their contributions in World War I. Indian soldiers had not been eligible for the Victoria Cross until 1911.
The honour of being the first Indian recipient of the Victoria Cross (VC) in any conflict went to Sepoy Khudad Khan, 129th Duke of Connaught's Own Baluchis. When on 31 October 1914, at Hollebeke, Belgium, the British Officer in charge of the detachment having been wounded, and the other gun put out of action by a shell, Sepoy Khudadad, though himself wounded, remained working his gun until all the other five men of the gun detachment had been killed.
A total of 11 Victorian Crosses were won by Indian soldiers.
Others were-
- Darwan Singh Negi, [39th Garhwal Rifles, For gallantry on 23–24 November 1914, near Festubert, France]
- Gabar Singh Negi, [39th Garhwal Rifles, For gallantry on 10 March 1915, Neuve Chapelle, France]
- Mir Dast, [55th Coke's Rifles (Frontier Force), For gallantry on 26 April 1915, at Wieltje, Belgium]
- Kulbir Thapa, [3rd Gurkha Rifles, For gallantry on 25 September 1915 in Fauquissart, France]
- Lala, [41st Dogras, For gallantry on 21 January 1916, at El Orah, Mesopotamia]
-Shahamad Khan, [89th Punjabis, For gallantry on 12–13 April 1916 near Beit Ayeesa, Mesopotamia]
-Gobind Singh, [28th Light Cavalry, For gallantry on 30 November - 1 December 1917, East of Pozieres, France]
- Karanbahadur Rana, [3rd Gurkha Rifles, For gallantry on 10 April 1918, at El Kefr, Egypt]
- Badlu Singh, [14th Murry's Jat Lancers, For gallantry on 2 September 1918 at Palestine]
Prominent amongst the soldiers who didn’t get any awards were -
- Arsala Khan of the 57th Wilde's Rifles who was the first to go into battle in Oct. 1914 and served till 1918 and even represented his regiment in London at the official Indian victory parade summer of 1919.
- Amar Singh who made the memory of war live through his his well written diary. Spanning 89 volumes from the 1890s to the 1940s, Singh's incredible diary(possibly the world's longest) covers his experience of the war from India to the western front and Britain, and on to the Iraq front, with his troopship dodging German U-boats in the Mediterranean along the way.
Singh finished the war back in India, where in 1917 his wife, Rasal, gave birth at their home in Rajasthan to their daughter Ratan.The baby girl was their sixth child and the first to survive disease in infancy, giving them new hope for a happy post-war family life.
- Awal Nur (Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides) was one of 16 Indian soldiers specially chosen to join British officers on a secret Indian Army mission into Soviet Central Asia in early 1918 with the goal to stop Soviet resources in Central Asia from reaching the Germans by railway and the Caspian Sea.
Nur's adventures as a secret agent took him across the Himalayas on a yak, before he worked tirelessly with other officers to frustrate enemy plans and escape capture.
- Pratap Singh an aristocratic officer of the Jodhpur Lancers was 73 years old when he went to war in 1914, becoming the oldest soldier in the British trenches on the western front. But he was still young at heart. His performance was astounding in September 1918 in Palestine at the Battle of Megiddo - the Indian Army's crowning battlefield achievement against the Turks to confirm the Ottoman Empire's downfall.
Field-Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck, Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army from 1942
asserted -
"British couldn't have come through both wars [World War I and II] if they hadn't had the Indian Army."
Out of thousands of civilians who contributed immensely and are forgotten, the contributions of Kasturba Gandhi stands out. It is said that Kasturba Gandhi was with her husband Mahatma Gandhi in England when World War I broke out. Together they volunteered as auxiliary hospital workers among the Allied troops in western Europe.
In 1914-15, Kasturba Gandhi worked in Indian Army hospitals - on England's southern coast - set up for some 16,000 Indian soldiers who had been wounded in France and Belgium. She was particularly anxious to see that no Indian patient suffered or felt embarrassed on those delicate questions of caste distinctions, wrote Daya Ram Thapar, a fellow Indian medical volunteer at the hospitals.
"She undertook to look after the feeding of seriously ill orthodox patients and often used to clean their utensils if they objected to being fed by non-Hindus."
Toward Armistice
By the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers were disintegrating on all fronts. Continuous defeats in war and Arab revolt followed by economy failure forced the Ottoman Empire to sign a treaty with the Allies in late October 1918.
Due to growing nationalist movements among its diverse population, Austria-Hungary reached an armistice on November 4. Discontent on the home front and the surrender of its allies, finally forced Germany to seek an armistice on November 11, 1918, ending World War I.
The winners of the war were France, Britain and Italy and the US, France and Britain together lost more than 2 million men in the war and much of France was destroyed. France and Britain blamed Germany for the war and wanted to punish Germany and Austria-Hungary.
The winners also wanted to make sure that Germany could never pose a military threat to the rest of Europe again. They expected compensation in money and resources for the damage done to their countries in the war. Moreover, they wanted to weaken Germany and Austria-Hungary by taking land from them or by making some of their territories independent
The losers of the war were Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Like the Allied forces, Germany and Austria-Hungary lost many men – 2 million German soldiers alone were killed. Germany hoped not to shoulder all the blame for the war. Germany and Austria-Hungary both wanted to hold on to their territory and their colonies and to minimize the amount of compensation they would have to pay other countries for war damages.
Paris Peace Conference
The conference involved diplomats from 32 countries and nationalities, and its major decisions were
- Creation of the League of Nations.
- Five peace treaties with the defeated states
- Awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates" chiefly to Britain and France.
- Imposition of reparations upon Germany and other defeated nations.
- Drawing of new national boundaries, sometimes with plebiscites, to reflect ethnic boundaries more closely.
Dominated by the leaders of Britain, France, the United States and Italy, it resulted in five controversial treaties that rearranged the map of Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and the Pacific Islands and imposed financial penalties. Germany and the other losing nations had no voice which gave rise to political resentments that lasted for decades.
The five great powers (France, Britain, Italy, Japan and the United States) controlled the Conference. The "Big Four" were French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, US President Woodrow Wilson and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Emanuele Orlando. They met informally 145 times and made all major decisions before they were ratified.
In each treaty, the defeated nation was held responsible for the start of the war and resulting carnage. The occupied territories were redistributed and expensive reparations were imposed. Many Allied nations fought with each other to fulfill their territorial aspirations and at the end nobody was satisfied.
The conference began on 18 January 1919. Even though the conference concluded in June 1919, the formal peace process ended only in July 1923, when the Treaty of Lausanne was signed."
Though often referred to as the Versailles Conference, only first treaty with Germany was signed in the Hall of Mirrors of the historic palace, and the negotiations took place at the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs on the Quai d'Orsay, in Paris.
League of Nations – A Dream Remained Unfulfilled
The League of Nations was an international diplomatic group developed after World War I as a way to solve disputes between countries before they erupted into open warfare. A precursor to the United Nations, the League achieved some victories but had a mixed record of success, sometimes putting self-interest before becoming involved with conflict resolution, while also contending with governments that did not recognize its authority. The League effectively ceased operations during World War II.
The League of Nations has its origins in the Fourteen Points speech of US President Woodrow Wilson, part of a presentation given in January 1918 outlining of his ideas for peace after the carnage of World War I. Wilson envisioned an organization that will be charged with resolving conflicts before they exploded into bloodshed and warfare.
In Paris Peace Conference, the Wilson’s ideas were accepted and League of Nations was born. However, in US some Republican Congressmen opposed the idea, believing that it undercut US autonomy in international matters. Congress did not ratify the treaty, and the United States refused to take part in the League of Nations. Isolationists in Congress feared it would draw the United Sates into international affairs unnecessarily.
Treaty of Versailles with Germany
The Treaty of Versailles was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in the Palace of Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, which had directly led to the war.
Article 231 (later became known as the War Guilt clause.) of the treaty placed the whole guilt for the war on "the aggression of Germany and her allies." The treaty required Germany to disarm and make ample territorial concessions.
The treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed by Russia with the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria) on 3 March 1918, ending its participation in World War I was annulled. By the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to give up its territorial gains from the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Germany was also forced to pay reparations (compensation in money or materials payable by a defeated nation for damages to or expenditures sustained by another nation as a result of hostilities) to certain countries that had formed the Allied powers.
In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion gold marks (then $31.4 billion). That provision proved to be very humiliating for Germany even it paid only a small portion before its last payment in 1931.
Many historians hold the view that the treaty was too harsh on Germany and termed it as a Carthaginian Peace (A Carthaginian peace is the imposition of a very brutal "peace" achieved by completely crushing the enemy. The term derives from the peace imposed on the Carthaginian Empire by the Roman Republic.). The reparations figure was opined as excessive and counter-productive.
On the other hand, there were others who criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently. Later the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulted in the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. The actual impact of the treaty was not as severe as feared, its terms led to great resentment in Germany which powered the rise of the Nazi Party and it has been often cited as a cause of World War II.
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with German Austria
The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye was signed on 10 September 1919 by the victorious Allies of the World War I on the one hand and by the Republic of German-Austria on the other. Like the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, it contained the agreement of the League of Nations and as a result was not ratified by the United States but was followed by the US-Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921.
The treaty signing ceremony took place at the Chateau de Saint-Germain-en -Lave. The treaty declared that the Austria-Hungarian Empire was to be dissolved. According to article 177 Austria, along with the other Central Powers accepted responsibility for starting the war.
The new Republic of Austria, consisting of most of the German-speaking Danubian and Alpine provinces in former Cisleithania, recognized the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and the Kingdom of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. The treaty included 'war reparations' of large sums of money, directed towards the Allies (However the exact amount have never been defined and collected from Austria).
Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine with Bulgaria
The Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine required Bulgaria to cede various territories, after Bulgaria had been one of the Central Powers defeated in World War I. The treaty was signed on 27 November 1919 at Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. The signing ceremony was held in Neuilly's town hall (hôtel de ville).
In Bulgaria, the results of the treaty are popularly known as the Second National Catastrophe. Bulgaria subsequently regained South Dobruja (which it was forced to cede) as a result of the Treaty of Craiova.
Treaty of Trianon with Hungary
The Treaty of Trianon was signed in the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles on 4 June 1920. It regulated the status of the independent Hungarian state and defined its borders generally within the ceasefire lines established in November-December 1918. and left Hungary as a landlocked state that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarian half of the Austria-Hungarian monarchy).
The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austrian-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. These decisions and their consequences have been the cause of deep resentment in Hungary ever since.
Treaty of Sèvres with Ottoman Empire
The treaty was signed on 10 August 1920 in an exhibition room at the Manufacture nationale de Sevres porcelain factory in Sevres, France. The treaty ceded large parts of Ottoman territory to France, the United Kingdom, Greece and Italy and created large occupation zones within the Ottoman Empire.
The Treaty of Sèvres marked the beginning of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and the dismemberment of the empire. The treaty's stipulations included the renunciation of most territory not inhabited by Turkish people and their cession to the Allied administration. The terms stirred hostility and Turkish nationalism.
The treaty's signatories were stripped of their citizenship by the Grand National Assembly, led by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, which ignited the Turkish War of Independence. Atatürk led the Turkish nationalists in the war to defeat the combined armies of the signatories of the Treaty of Sèvres. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, ended the conflict and saw the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.
Treaty of Lausanne
The Treaty of Lausanne was a peace treaty negotiated during the Lausanne Conference of 1922-23 and signed in the Palais de Rumine, Lausanne, Switzerland on 24 July 1923. The treaty officially settled the conflict that had originally existed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allied countries (France, Britain, Italy, Japan, Romania and Greece) since the onset of World War I.
The earlier treaty signed in 1920 was rejected by the Turkish national movement who fought against its terms resulting in Greco- Turkish War. The Treaty of Lausanne ended the conflict and defined the borders of the modern Turkish Republic. In the treaty, Turkey gave up all claims to the remainder of the Ottoman Empire and in return the Allies recognized Turkish sovereignty within its new borders.
Aspirations of Italy
In the peace negotiations, the Italian government tried very hard to get what they had been promised in the Treaty of London. But other allies opposed. At one point the entire Italian delegation walked out of the peace conference, returning only days later. Ultimately Italy received control of the Tyrol and a permanent seat on the newly formed League of Nations. But still it remained dissatisfied.
Japan vs. China
During the war, Japan had directly participated whereas Chinese participation was in terms of supply of labours. China had also signed a treaty (though under force) with Japan in May 1925 and handed over control of Shantung(also called Shandong) Peninsula to Japan. China had entered the war to gain international prestige, to shrink Japan's sphere of Influence and ultimately regain control over the Shantung Peninsula.
Thus Shantung Peninsula became bone of contention between the two countries and both fought bitterly for it. In Paris Peace Conference western powers ultimately awarded Shantung to Japan; believing that they should honor the 25 May 1915 treaty between Japan and China (Even though China was pressured by Japan to sign after taking Shantung).
China saw the move as a rejection of its demand to be recognized as an equal player in global politics, and as an affront to its sovereignty. China was deeply angry at the Versailles Treaty and was the only country at the postwar peace conference to refuse to put a signature on it.
However, Japan had promised to return control of Shantung to China eventually and it did so in February 1922.
Aftermath of World War I
The aftermath of World War I saw drastic political, cultural, economic, and social changes across Eurasia, Africa, and even in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries were redrawn, international organizations were established, and many new and old ideologies took a firm hold in people's minds. Many countries and governments were greatly affected due to this war.
Hungary
The Aster Revolution was a revolution in Hungary in the aftermath of World War I which led to the breaking of Austria-Hungary in two parts.
The revolution received its name because the citizens and demobilized soldiers in Budapest began placing the aster flowers in their hats and caps to symbolize support for the social democratic Hungarian National Council (HNC) which demanded the secession of Hungary from the Austria-Hungarian Empire.
On 31 October 1918, HNC protesters wearing asters seized the public buildings throughout Budapest. Prime Minister Sandor Wekerle resigned and former Prime Minister Istvan Tisza was murdered. By the end of the day, King Charles IV was forced to accept the coup. HNC terminated the Compromise of 1867, and dissolved the Austria-Hungarian union.
Germany
Civil conflict in the German Empire at the end of the First World War resulted in the replacement of Germany’s Imperial government with a republic. The revolutionary period lasted from November 1918 until the establishment in August 1919 of a republic that later became known as the Weimar Republic.
As the years passed, hatred of the Versailles treaty and its authors settled into a smoldering resentment in Germany that would, two decades later, be counted among the causes of World War II.
- Italy
- The opposition of its demands by other allies left many within the country dissatisfied and continued to nurse resentments of the other Allied powers. This would later drive the success of Benito Mussolini and his fascist movement.
China
In retaliation to the Chinese government's weak response to the Paris Peace Conference, students protested against the to allow Japan to retain Shantung. A huge demonstration was held in Tiananmen Square on May 4, 1919, protesting the peace treaty Known as May Fourth Movement.
The popular sentiment was that China had been deceived by Allied Powers which are selfish, militaristic and great liars. A year after the peace conference closed, radical Chinese nationalists formed the Chinese Communist Party, which under the leadership of Mao Tse -tung and Chou En-lai went on to win power in China in 1949.
Historians opine that - If this whole Shantung controversy had not happened, China might never have become Communist.
Japan
When other Allies didn’t support Japan's ambitions to dominate China through the Twenty-One Demands of 1915 and at the end of the war, Japan also felt sidelined and remained dissatisfied.
Over the coming years, ambitious militarist leaders would assert their hold ever more strongly on the Japanese government and its powerful economy, clashing brutally with China and other rivals in the Far East while readying themselves for another great struggle many of them had long anticipated: between Japan and the United States.
In short the seeds of World War II were sowed in World War I itself.
Legacy of World War I
World War I has also been referred to as “the first modern war.” Many of the technologies now associated with military conflict—machine guns, tanks, aerial combat and radio communications—were introduced on a massive scale during World War I.
The severe effects that Chemical Weapons such as mustard gas and phosgene had on soldiers and civilians during World War I galvanized public and military attitudes against their continued use. The Geneva Convention agreements, signed in 1925, restricted the use of chemical and biological agents in warfare and remains in effect today.
Why World War I Happened?
Very difficult to categorize the real reasons of the war. In fact historians are also divided on the cause of the WW1.
One group feels that real reason was the trigger i.e. assassination carried out by Gavrilo Princip.
Without the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand - there would have been no need for rulers in Vienna to threaten Serbia - no need for Russia to come to Serbia's defense - no need for Germany to come to Austria's defense — and no call for France and Britain to honor their treaties with Russia.
Another group feels that even after the assassination, the war wouldn’t have happened if Triple Alliance and Triple Entente were not there. Thus it was alliances which caused the war.
However I strongly feel that the real reason was expansionist desire of countries like Germany, Russia, Austria-Hungary and Japan.
If in 1908 Austria-Hungary had not taken unilateral action and annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina and created Bosnian Crisis, then assassination may not have happened.
Also, if Austria-Hungary would have adopted a calm approach rather than declaring war (Gavrilo Princip was anyway punished for his action.) then also it was possible to avoid the war thus destruction and lives could be saved.
Interesting Facts about World War I
- More than 65 million men fought in the war.
- Dogs were used in the trenches to carry messages. A well-trained messenger dog was considered a very fast and reliable way to carry messages.
- It was the first major war where airplanes and tanks were used.
- Ninety percent of the 7.8 million soldiers from Austria-Hungary who fought in the war were either injured or killed.
- When the British first invented tanks they called them "landships."
- Famed scientist Marie Curie helped to equip vans with x-ray machines that enabled French doctors to see bullets in wounded men. These vans were called “petites Curies”, meaning "little Curies."
Lessons for Present Situation
World is sitting on the volcano which may erupt any time. If we look around then there are WW I like situations present in many parts of the world.
- There are countries like United States, Russia, United Kingdom, France, China, India, Pakistan and North Korea are publicly known to have Nuclear weapons. It is assumed (but not confirmed) that the Israel also possess the nuclear arms capability.
According to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the worldwide total inventory of nuclear weapons as of 2019 stood at 13,865 and more than 90% nuclear weapons were owned by Russia and the United States.
- However, the difference between now and 1914 is that 193 member United Nations with Security Council having five permanent members (USA, Russia, China, France and United Kingdom) with veto power and ten non-permanent members is present to resolve the dispute between the countries.
United Nations has been very effective in many cases. But what happens when one or more of permanent security council members get involved in conflict of other nations? In such cases, Security Council is not able to agree to take any firm action because of Veto Power.
Normally, one country gets directly involved and other countries start proxy war by supporting rebels. Examples are Vietnam, Afghanistan and Syria.
- USA consider itself as policeman of the world and tries to involve itself every where whether desired or not. One of the reasons is fight for Sphere of Influence between USA, Russia and China. Normally, USA and it’s EU partners don’t see eye to eye with communist countries like Russia and China and vise versa.
- China is having obsession to expand and control the world through economic strength as well as military capability. It is very much evident, in their actions with respect to India in Leh – Laddakh, Conflict with Taiwan and Japan.
They are also committing ethnic cleansing on Uighur Muslims. World has called it genocide. Their recent actions in Hong Kong and 04 June 1989 Tiananmen Square Massacre of student-led demonstrations show their mindset and power blindness.
- Russia has also annexed Crimea from Ukraine on the plea of protecting Russian Citizens there.
- Since 1949, there is conflict between Israel and Palestine regarding West Bank occupation by Israel.
- Only possible action that can be taken is to impose economic sanctions. But it is proven that economic sanctions work very slowly and many a times fail. Example is sanctions on China after Tiananmen Square Massacre, North Korea, Russia and Iran.
- Many countries specially in African contents are on the verge of implosion due to internal armed conflict. Examples are - Democratic Republic of the Congo, Central African Republic, Libya, Nigeria, Mali, and Somalia.
United Nations has sent Peace Keeping Missions to many regions to enforce peace and save human lives and sufferings. However, the conflicts continue. Situation becomes more complicated when two or more groups are supported by different countries as in case of Libya.
- Similar situation exists in many other countries like Iraq, Afghanistan and Syria.
- World faces greatest danger from terrorist organizations. There are about 50 designated international terrorist groups operating world over and creating havoc in different countries. These groups have no regard for human lives and are responsible for committing human rights abuses, genocide and crime against humanity.
- One of the most prominent terrorist group is Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and also known by its Arabic acronym Daesh, known for its videos of beheadings and other types of executions of both soldiers and civilians, including journalists and aid workers, and its destruction of cultural heritage sites.
Its area of operation was mostly Iraq and Syria. In mid-2014, an international coalition led by the United States intervened against ISIL with an airstrike campaign and with concerted international campaign, ISIL is almost driven out from every where. It is however reported that ISIL is not completely finished and might emerge any time perhaps in another form.
Pakistan and India
- There are countries like Pakistan who officially support Terrorism directed against India calling it Jihadist movement, Freedom fighters or soft/good terrorism. Pakistan is safe heaven for many terrorist organizations like Lashkar-e-Taiba, Jaish-e-Mohammed , Al-Qaeda , Haqqani network and many others and Pakistan’s ISI supports these organizations by providing training and financial support.
- By supporting, these terrorist groups, Pakistan has created a Frankenstein which it is not able to control and this Frankenstein is now carrying out terrorist activities within Pakistan as well.
- There are Hindu Nationalist groups in India who want India to be defined as a Hindu Nation and are bent on breaking the secular thread of the country. They blame Muslim community to be responsible for all terrorist activities in the country.
- Both India and Pakistan are fighting for “say” in Afghanistan -India by supporting development and Pakistan by supporting militants. Pakistan is in state of constant denial about it’s support to terrorism like it had denied presence of Osama bin Laden till he was tracked and killed by US forces.
-Both nuclear armed countries were on the brink of war number of times, especially after-
.Red Fort Terror attack- On 22 December 2000, a terrorist attack took place on the Red Fort in Delhi, India. It was carried out by the Pakistani terrorist group Lashkar-e-Taiba.
.Parliament Terror attack- On 13 December 2001, a terrorist attack took place on Indian Parliament attack. It was carried out by the Pakistani terrorist group Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed.
.Bombay Terror attack- In November 2008, a series of terrorist attacks that took place in in different sites in Mumbai, when 10 members of Pakistani terrorist group Lashkar-e-Taiba, carried out 12 coordinated shooting and bombing attacks lasting four days across Mumbai.
However, ugly situation could be avoided by international mediation and pressure.
USA – Iran- North Korea
- USA has been at loggerhead with both Iran and North Korea. Both countries are friends of China. North Korea has been threatening both USA and South Korea with nuclear strike. The United States and South Korea are allies under the1953 Mutual Defense Treaty. Under the agreement, US military personnel have maintained a continuous presence on the Korean peninsula. South Korea has a long military alliance with the United States
It is understood that Stuxnet a malicious computer worm(a cyberweapon), built jointly by the USA and Israel in a collaborative effort known as the " Olympic Games" was responsible for causing substantial damage to the nuclear program of Iran in 2010 (Although neither country has openly admitted responsibility).
Stuxnet reportedly collected information on industrial systems and caused the fast-spinning centrifuges to tear themselves apart. It ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's nuclear centrifuges including the uranium enrichment centrifuges at the Natanz facility.
Iran was reported to have "beefed up" its cyberwar abilities following the Stuxnet attack, and has been suspected of retaliatory attacks against US banks in 2012.
- Since the 1980s, North Korea has become known as a reliable supplier of arms to other countries including Iran. This weapons sale relationship has expanded into further military cooperation including in the development of and exchange of nuclear technology. This relationship has also involved Syria which is another country not very friendly with USA,
- The political and diplomatic relations between North Korea and the United States have been historically hostile since the Korean War (1950-53). USA has maintained a strong military presence in South Korea with 28,500 troops, 90 Patriot missiles and five military bases.
North Korea's nuclear weapons program consists of development of long-range missiles capable of striking targets thousands of miles away in the continental United States and its ongoing threats to strike the United States and South Korea with nuclear weapons and conventional forces. Kim Jong-un Supreme Leader of North Korea has issued these threats number of times.
The United States also has Nuclear Weapons Program in nearby Guam(an unincorporated organized territory of the United States) which is a small island in the western Pacific Ocean about 2,200 miles southeast of North Korea.
Its proximity to China, Japan, the Philippines and the Korean Peninsula makes the island very important strategically and from here, the U.S. conducts precision strike exercises to simulate a pre-emptive nuclear strike on North Korea. Neither the United States nor North Korea has adopted a No First Use nuclear weapons policy.
China and USA
China–United States relations has been complex, and varied from positive to highly negative. The relationship is of economic cooperation, hegemonic rivalry in the Pacific, and mutual suspicion over each other's intentions.
Therefore, each nation has adopted a wary attitude regarding the other as a potential adversary but has meanwhile maintained an extremely strong economic partnership. It has been described by world leaders and academics as the world's most important bilateral relationship of the 21st century.
As of 2019, the United States has the world's largest economy and China has the second largest. The relations between the two countries were generally stable except during the Korean War and the Vietnam War.
Currently, United States and China have mutual political, economic, and security interests but there are unresolved concerns relating to the role of democracy in government in China, human rights in China and dispute over territorial issues in the South China Sea.
China has stepped up military, diplomatic and economic pressure on Taiwan since the 2016 election of President Tsai Ing-wen, who refuses to accept Beijing's stance that the island is part of "one China". The new US administration has said its commitment to Taiwan is "rock-solid," with officials in Washington signalling that they will not tolerate any expansionist moves by Beijing.
China claims almost all of the 1.3 million square mile South China Sea. Since 2014 it has transformed obscure reefs and sandbars into man-made artificial islands, fortified with missiles, runways and weapons systems -- antagonizing governments with overlapping claims, including the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and Taiwan.
The US has challenged Chinese claims in the Pacific and to the displeasure and complaints from China, US Navy sent the guided-missile destroyer USS John S McCain through the Taiwan Strait, which separates China from self-governed Taiwan. Next day, the same warship steamed near the Chinese-claimed Paracel Islands in the South China Sea.
By this, US administration has reaffirmed its commitment to its allies and partners (specially Philippines and Japan) in the region that their islands also claimed by China are covered by mutual defense treaties that obligates Washington to defend them.
China and Russia
China–Russia have enjoyed close relations militarily, economically, and politically, while supporting each other on various global issues. However, Russia has increasingly raised concerns about China's ambitions and influence in Central Asia, an area traditionally within Russian influence. China and Russia also differ on some policies.
China does not recognize Russia's annexation of Crimea, and Russia does not support China's claims in the South China Sea.Both nations have serious grievances with the United States.
For China the issues are control of the South China Sea, trade policies, and piracy of American technology and for Russia it is Economic penalties imposed by the US and Europe after it’s annexation of Crimea. Basically Enemy’s Enemy is Friend.
There is no formal alliance, but an informal agreement to coordinate diplomatic and economic moves, and build up an alliance against the United States.
China and Japan
China’s and Japan’s economies are respectively the world's second and third- largest economies by nominal GDP but their relations are mired in tension, which risks the break-out of a conflict in Asia.
China–Japan are geographically separated by the East China Sea . Each country claims to have economic rights in an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of two hundred nautical miles from its coast, but that space overlaps because the sea separating China and Japan only spans three hundred and sixty nautical miles.
The Senkaku/Diaoyu islands in the disputed zone were privately owned by a series of Japanese citizens for most of the past 120 years. Japan has exercised effective control over the islands since 1895. The economically significant islands, which are northeast of Taiwan, have potential oil and natural gas reserves, are near prominent shipping routes, and are surrounded by rich fishing areas.
China started to assert claims over the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands after learning it’s economic significance in the 1970s. Tensions resurfaced in September 2012 when Japan purchased three of the disputed islands from a private owner.
Tensions between China and Japan over the Senkaku/Diaoyu islands continue to increase as both countries improve their military capabilities in the region. Japan has alleged that the expansion of People’s Liberation Army and its assertive actions are damaging the bilateral relation.
Recently, Japan has built new military bases on nearby islands, allegedly to monitor the Miyako and Tokara Straits and prevent China from further developing its military capabilities in the region.
- China is also having ongoing territorial dispute with Malaysia, Taiwan (ROC), Philippines, Vietnam and Brunei over the ownership of the Spratly Islands (disputed archipelago in the South China Sea) which offer rich fishing grounds and may contain significant oil and natural gas reserves as well and thus the islands are important for economic and strategic reasons.
It is thus important to the claimants. in their attempts to establish international boundaries. The dispute is characterized by diplomatic stalemate and the employment of military pressure techniques (such as military occupation of disputed territory) in the advancement of national territorial claims. All except Brunei occupy some of the maritime features.
Trigger Points for Future War
Now let us see the potential trigger points and their and try forecast effects in the international situation described above.
Pakistan sponsored Terrorist Attack takes place in India
- Will create outrage in India.
- Pakistan adopts the usual cycle of – Sympathy- Innocence- Show us Proof-
Proof not credible – 6 months pass and situation cools down.
- This time India doesn’t fall for this and launches strike in Pakistan.
- Pakistan strikes back and war breaks down.
- China see opportunity to settle Laddakh dispute and joins with Pakistan.
- Russia remains neutral but USA and countries anti to China may join with India.
- Iran may join against USA.
World war situation emerges. When facing defeat, Pakistan may use nuclear weapon. India will retaliate.
North Korea strikes South Korea, US interest in the region or US main land
North Korean is presently ruled by a dictator Kim Jong Un who can go to any stage when provoked. In the past (in Dec 2013) he had executed his uncle Jang Song Thaek because (according to North Korea's official news agency), Jang clapped "half-heartedly" when Kim was elected vice chairman of the country's central military commission.
He had also ordered the purge or execution of several North Korean officials and is also believed to be responsible for the 2017 assassination of his half-brother, Kim Jong-Nam in Malaysia. He has also issued threat number of times to strike USA and South Korea.
- US strikes back from its forces in Guam.
- NATO countries may join with USA.
- Iran may join with North Korea.
- China and Russia may remain neutral.
- Facing rout, North Korea uses nuclear weapon.
- USA retaliates.
China takes forced measures and occupies some or all Senkaku/Diaoyu islands
- Japan considers it as act of war and retaliates.
- Iran joins with China.
- USA joins with Japan.
- NATO countries may join with USA.
Note that Russia will step in only when its sphere of influence in Balkan countries or Central Asia is affected. Otherwise it is expected to remain neutral except in UN where it might vote or use veto in favour of it’s friends.
So what must be done to avoid the ugly confrontation and loss of human lives and destruction.
* Permanent UN members with veto power need to bring changes in the working of UN. As an example, if UN General assembly votes for any issue to the tune of 80% then it must be adopted automatically in Security Council without veto.
* Major Powers like USA and Russia need to think many times before military intervention in the affairs of any countries. The situation in Iraq and Libya has not improved by forced change in regime. On the other hand it has worsened. The Democracy is the best form of governance but it may not be suitable in all cases.
The countries who are habituated to be governed by a central authority(may be a dictator) fall in to chaos when the authority is taken out. The country becomes battleground for war lords and militant groups to fight for control. It is precisely what is happening in Iraq and Libya.
* The Major Powers need to understand that supporting rebellion in any country may not always bring regime change. On the other hand, their actions may increase violence and misery of people at large. It is very much evident in case of Syria and Venezuela where promises and support by major powers brought the rebellion which were brutally suppressed by the regime.
* All the countries must understand that by supporting terrorist activities directed against another country, they are creating problem for themselves as these groups will start controlling the government, failing which they will start the terror activities in their own country like Frankenstein. Pakistan is live example.
* Countries like China and Russia must curb the expansionist tendency. It must be remembered that it is these tendencies that brought countries in to World War I. China, more than any other country is exhibiting it w.r.t. India, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, Philippines, Vietnam and Brunei. Conflict resolution through dialog is the only way forward.
* All countries must recognize human right and freedom speech as fundamental principle for the existence. The militant groups have shown the highest level of barbarous behaviour by killing and rape of innocent victims.
In African countries both militant groups as well as Govt. forces show scant regard to human rights and even resort to ethnic cleansing. China is exhibiting it in case of Uighur Muslims and Myanmar for Rohingya Muslims. There are Hate Black, Hate Muslims and even Hate Jews groups in many countries. These must be curbed at all cost.
At the end let us remember what Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore had said in
Gitanjali as his vision of a world.
Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high;
Where knowledge is free;
Where the world has not been broken up into fragments by narrow domestic walls;
Where words come out from the depth of truth;
Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection;
Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way into the dreary desert sand of dead habit;
Where the mind is led forward by thee into ever-widening thought and action
Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.
References
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Entente,
2. https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire,
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria-Hungary,
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Berlin_(1878),
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnian_Crisis,
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Hand_(Serbia)
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavrilo_Princip,
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_entry_into_World_War_I,
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_Alliance_(1882)
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Battle_of_the_Marne,
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun#Battle,
12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Somme,
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tannenberg,
14. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign,
15. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Caporetto
17. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/greece-declares-war-on-central-powers,
18. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I,
19. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/japan-gives-ultimatum-to-germany,
20. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_during_World_War_I,
21. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockade_of_Germany,
22. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland,
23. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/47/5/668/296225,
24. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu
25. https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/indian-army-s-
unsung-role-and-sacrifices-in-world-war-i-1398762-2018-11-29
26. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-46148207
27. https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/treaties-of-brest-litovsk,
28. https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/league-of-nations,
29. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aster_Revolution,
30. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I,
31. https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/world-war-i-history,
32. https://www.ducksters.com/history/world_war_i/
https://kantscorner.blogspot.com/2021/02/let-us-learn-lesson-from-history-world.html
My Other Blogs -
- Being Indian
https://kantscorner.blogspot.com/2019/09/being-indian_11.html
- V. P. Menon and the Story of of Partition and Unification of India
https://kantscorner.blogspot.com/2019/11/v-p-menon-story-of-partition-and.html
- Travelogue Mizoram
https://kantscorner.blogspot.com/2019/09/travelogue-mizoram.html
- Travelogue Nagaland
https://kantscorner.blogspot.com/2020/04/travelouge-nagaland.html
